JMIR Publications

ABSTRACT

Background:

Psychological skills training (PST) is a core component of sport psychology, supporting athletes’ performance, well-being, and capacity to manage competitive stress. However, access to high-quality, practitioner-led PST is often constrained by time, cost, availability of trained professionals, and stigma surrounding help-seeking. In response, digital interventions such as mobile applications, biofeedback systems, and immersive technologies have been increasingly adopted to deliver PST in more scalable and flexible formats. Despite rapid growth in this area, evidence regarding the promises and challenges of digital PST remains fragmented across modalities and outcome domains.

Objective:

This systematic review synthesizes empirical evidence on the use of digital interventions for delivering PST in athlete populations. Specifically, it maps the digital modalities employed, the psychological skills and frameworks targeted, the populations and sporting contexts studied, and the promises and challenges reported in relation to effectiveness, feasibility, and implementation.

Methods:

We conducted a PRISMA-compliant systematic review of English-language studies published between 2000 and 2025. Three databases (Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses) were systematically searched, and additional records were identified through a manual search. Eligible studies examined digital or technology-based interventions deployed to support PST outcomes in athlete populations and reported empirical quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods findings. Two reviewers independently screened records and extracted data, resolving discrepancies through discussion.

Results:

Thirty-six studies met the inclusion criteria, encompassing virtual reality-based interventions, mobile applications, and biofeedback or neurofeedback systems. Across modalities, digital PST interventions targeted a range of psychological skills, including stress and anxiety regulation, attentional control, imagery ability, self-talk, and emotional regulation. Reported promises included improvements in affective, cognitive, physiological, and performance-related outcomes, enhanced accessibility, flexibility, and engagement of PST delivery, and potential for skill transfer beyond sport. However, recurring challenges were also identified, such as limited personalization, variable user engagement, technical and cost barriers, and inconsistent or weaker efficacy relative to traditional PST methods.

Conclusions:

Digital interventions offer a meaningful extension to traditional PST by widening access, enhancing immersion, and providing real-time feedback that supports psychological skill development. However, their effectiveness appears constrained by methodological variability, limited personalization, and implementation challenges. Future research should prioritize rigorous longitudinal designs, clearer alignment with PST theory, and hybrid delivery models in which digital tools complement practitioner expertise, to ensure digital PST enhances rather than dilutes psychological practice.