JMIR Publications

ABSTRACT

Background:

Groundwater is the main source of drinking water in Ogbia Local Government Area (LGA), Bayelsa State, Nigeria, where surface water is often compromised by oil exploration, poor sanitation, and waste disposal. Despite its importance, groundwater in this region is vulnerable to contamination from both geogenic and anthropogenic sources, raising concerns about long-term health implications.

Objective:

This study aimed to evaluate the physico-chemical quality of groundwater across selected communities in Ogbia LGA, compare measured values with World Health Organization (WHO) standards, and determine the implications for human health.

Methods:

A cross-sectional design was employed, involving the systematic collection of 50 groundwater samples from boreholes across 16 communities, including Oruma, Otuasega, Imiringi, Elebele, Otuokpoti, Kolo, Otouke, Onuebum, Ewoi, Otuogila, Otuabagi, Ogbia Town, Oloibiri, Opume, and Akiplai. Standardized laboratory analyses were conducted following WHO protocols to determine pH, conductivity, total dissolved solids, major ions, and heavy metals. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

Results:

The findings showed that most parameters, including pH (6.4–7.1), conductivity (76–200 µS/cm), nitrates (2.4–6.4 mg/L), chloride (12–31 mg/L), calcium, magnesium, and hardness, were within WHO permissible limits, indicating generally acceptable groundwater quality. However, sodium exceeded WHO limits (200 mg/L) in 78% of samples (mean = 235 ± 45 mg/L; range = 150–320 mg/L), while iron exceeded permissible levels (0.3 mg/L) in 84% of samples (mean = 1.8 ± 0.6 mg/L; range = 0.5–3.2 mg/L). Elevated sodium poses risks of hypertension and cardiovascular disease, while excess iron is associated with gastrointestinal issues, organ damage, and aesthetic concerns such as metallic taste and staining. Spatial variations revealed stronger oilfield influences in Elebele, Imiringi, and Oloibiri, while central settlements such as Ogbia Town and Opume showed sanitation-related signatures. Seasonal fluctuations further exacerbated contaminant levels, particularly during rainfall-driven recharge.

Conclusions:

Groundwater in Ogbia LGA is broadly suitable for domestic use but compromised by systemic sodium and iron contamination. These exceedances, influenced by both natural hydrogeology and anthropogenic activities, present long-term public health challenges if unaddressed. Policy interventions should focus on routine groundwater monitoring, stricter regulation of oilfield activities, and improved waste management. Community-level treatment solutions, such as low-cost filters targeting sodium and iron removal, should be deployed. Public awareness programs and household water safety plans are also essential. Long-term strategies must integrate water governance with health and environmental policies to ensure sustainable access to safe water. The persistence of elevated sodium and iron in Ogbia groundwater poses a silent but significant health threat to residents, with implications for hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and gastrointestinal disorders. Safeguarding groundwater quality is therefore critical for reducing health inequalities and achieving Sustainable Development Goals 3 (Good Health and Well-being) and 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) in Bayelsa State.