Accepted for/Published in: Journal of Medical Internet Research
Date Submitted: May 16, 2024
Date Accepted: Dec 11, 2024
The Effect of Artificial Intelligence Helpfulness and Uncertainty on Cognitive Interactions with Pharmacists: A Randomized Controlled Trial
ABSTRACT
Background:
Clinical decision support systems (CDSS) leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) are increasingly integrated into healthcare practices, including pharmacy medication verification. Communicating uncertainty in an AI prediction is viewed as an important mechanism for boosting human collaboration and trust. Yet, little is known about the effects on human cognition as a result of interacting with such types of AI advice.
Objective:
To evaluate the cognitive interaction patterns of pharmacists during medication product verification when using an AI prototype. Moreover, we examine the impact of AI’s assistance — both helpful and unhelpful — and the communication of uncertainty of AI-generated results on pharmacists’ cognitive interaction with the prototype.
Methods:
In a randomized controlled trial, 30 pharmacists from professional networks each performed 200 medication verification tasks while their eye movements were recorded using a virtual eye tracker. Participants completed 100 verifications without AI assistance and 100 with AI assistance (either with black-box help without uncertainty information, or uncertainty-aware help which displays AI uncertainty). Fixation patterns (first and last areas fixated, number of fixations, fixation duration, and dwell times) were analyzed in relation to AI help type and helpfulness.
Results:
Pharmacists shifted 19-26% of their total fixations to AI-generated regions when these were available, suggesting integration of AI advice in decision-making. AI assistance did not reduce the number of fixations on fill images, which remained the primary focus area. Unhelpful AI advice led to longer dwell times on reference and fill images, indicating increased cognitive processing. Displaying AI uncertainty led to longer cognitive processing times as measured by dwell times in original images.
Conclusions:
Unhelpful AI increases cognitive processing time in the original images. Transparency in AI is needed in “black-box” systems, but showing more information can add cognitive burden. Therefore, the communication of uncertainty should be optimized and integrated into clinical workflows using user-centered design to avoid increasing cognitive load or impeding clinicians’ original workflow.
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