JMIR Publications

ABSTRACT

Background:

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing global phenomenon however, its link to Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) remains underexplored, particularly in healthcare facilities (HCFs) where humanitarian crises prevails.

Objective:

The study aimed to identify AMR bacteria in samples collected from WASH services in two hospitals in Gaza and to investigate the presence of AMR genes.

Methods:

A hospital-based cross-sectional study to detect and identify antimicrobial resistance bacteria was conducted. Random samples from water, wastewater, soap, and surface swabs (n=345) were collected from Al-Shifa and European Gaza hospitals and screened for the presence Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas, Enterococcus and Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrobial susceptibility, ESBL production, carbapenem resistance, and AMR genes were investigated.

Results:

High levels of bacterial contamination was detected in water and surface swab samples with an overall percentage 34.1%. Twenty-two percent of identified Enterobacteriaceae was positive for ESBL and fourteen percent was positive for Modified Hodge test (MHT). Over 2/3 of isolated Enterobacteriaceae in water and wastewater samples found resistant to amikacin, ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, and imipenem. All Enterobacteriaceae isolates from swab samples were found to be resistant to piperacillin-tazobactam, amikacin, ceftazidime, and ceftriaxone. 13.8% of Staphylococcus aureus in water samples were methicillin resistant. The prevalence of ESBL genes among Enterobacteriaceae isolates were: 25% OXA, 19.4% SHV, 2.8% KPC, 66.7% TEM, 41.7% blaCTXM, and 5.6% blaCTXM-3. For carbapenem resistant gene (MDM), the prevalence among Enterobacteriaceae was 11.1% and among Pseudomonas was 12.5%. The antibiotic susceptibility profile was also presented for Pseudomonas, Enterococcus and S. aureus.

Conclusions:

The results underline the level of contamination with AMR bacteria in WASH samples and highlights the need to consider the safety of WASH service at HCFs as an essential aspect in the fight against the spread of AMR and interrupt nosocomial transmission.